Did the Latin poet Lucan report an Ebola virus disease outbreak in his epic Pharsalia? An epidemiological report in Roman literature

The authors, analyzing Lucan's epic poem "Bellum civile / Pharsalia", examined the historical premises and the epidemiological conditions useful to understand some facts reported in book IX of the epic, where a probable epidemic infectious disease episode may have been described. After a careful reading of the Latin text and a revision of the phylogenetic history and characteristics of viruses responsible for the African hemorrhagic fevers, the authors suggest that in the text of Lucan may have been reported the very first historical description of an Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak. Over the past six years, the disease from Ebola virus (EVD) has spread repeatedly in areas of tropical Africa, creating outbreaks and larger epidemics and putting other nations in fright and jeopardy. Each outbreak has allowed the disease to manifest itself with different virulence and mortality in absence of therapy. The symptomatology and the clinical course of EVD are those of a typical hemorrhagic viral disease. In book IX of the Latin epic poem Bellum Civile by Lucan (39 AD – 65 AD), better known with the title of Pharsalia, an extensive and detailed description of a serious epidemic episode affecting Roman soldiers during their long journey in Africa is inserted. The explanations that Lucan provides are obviously compatible with the knowledge of the time. Considering the numerous affinities between the reported symptoms and the symptomatology of EVD, the authors hypothesize that the report provided by Lucan could have been the very first detailed description of an EVD outbreak. A civil war begins in Rome as Caesar [1] crosses the border of the Rubicon river, entering Italy. As a result, Pompey and the Senate leave Rome, heading to Brundisium. In March of 49 a.E.V (ante Era Vulgare). Pompey sails over to Epirus, while Italy remains under Caesar's control. Caesar and his allies conduct some victorious campaigns, defeating Pompey's generals in Spain. Caesar then comes back to Rome in December of 49 a.E.V. and is elected consul for the following year. In January of 48 a.E.V. Caesar and his army face the Pompeians at Dyrrachium. The opponents wait and make attempts to end up the war in a convenient and bloodless way but do not manage to get rid of personal and political rivalries. The final and decisive battle takes place in Pharsalus on August 9th of 48 a.E.V. The army of Pompey was in overwhelming numerical and tactical advantage over that of Caesar, who was strongly favoured. Nevertheless, it underwent a complete defeat, on the reasons of which historical sources do not provide a satisfactory explanation. For the historian and poet Lucan, the inexplicable is exclusively attributable to Fate, which governs the destinies of men and gods. Pompey fled with his family and a group of faithful through the islands of the Aegean, heading to Alexandria. He never reached his destination because he was treacherously killed by order of the fourteen years old Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra's brother. He was the one to whom Pompey thought - at least at first - to ask for help. According to Lucan the young pharaoh was advised by unscrupulous dignitaries, intent on this gesture to win over the favors of Caesar. Cato and his followers, chased now by the legions of Caesar, decided to seek shelter to attempt an extreme resistance in the provinces still favorable to Pompey and the Republic. The safest among them was Numidia, governed at the time by King Juba I, hostile to Caesar and protector of the Catonians. The army of fugitives thus undertook the way to the province of Africa (Caesar GJ, Commentarii de Bello Civili, 2.40) [1]. The movements of Caesarians, Pompey and Cato are shown in Fig. 1.