Toxicological effects of Chlorpyrifos among different organisms

Chlorpyrifos has been used as an insecticide with a long history of toxicity concerns for flora and fauna. However, the sensitivity and severity of toxicity vary greatly among the species. These toxic effects can lead to diseases, including problems with the brain and behavior, development, and reproductive health. For example, in rodents, Chlorpyrifos was found to be responsible for changes in neurotransmitter levels and results in modifications in motor activity, memory, and learning. However, it was reported in birds that this insecticide alters the frequency of egg production, hatching success, and other reproductive problems. Regardless of the adverse effect of Chlorpyrifos, it is still widely used in different areas including the agricultural sectors, particularly for pest control and mosquito control programs. Therefore, it is important to perform research on different aspects to identify the exact toxicological effect and its underlying mechanism of action for the mitigation or alteration of usage of these chemicals. Such studies have the prospect of bringing a permanent chemical modification of this pest-controlling molecule to enhance its activity through considerable reduction in the adverse effects. In this review, we accommodated the molecular action of Chlorpyrifos at synaptic sites and its impacts on anatomy, physiology, cell biology, and development of various organisms, including invertebrates, vertebrates, soil microbes, and plants. Thus, this review aims to highlight potential areas for future research on this significant bioactive compound, paving the way for safer and more effective pest control solutions.