The synthesis of Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism in the ideas of liberation in Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhism of the 18th century (a case study of Ngo Thi Nham)

This paper examines the synthesis of Confucianism, Mahāyāna Buddhism and Daoism in the conception of liberation within 18th century Vietnamese religious and philosophical thought, focusing on the case of Ngo Thi Nham (1746-1803). A prominent Confucian scholar, statesman, and Thiển (Zen) Buddhist master of the Truc Lam School, Ngo Thi Nham articulated a distinctive integrative vision in his major work “Trúc Lâm tông chỉ nguyên thanh” (The Truc Lam School's view on the primordial sound), in which the concept of integration of the "three teachings" is most consistently expressed. The study argues that the profound socio-political crisis of 18th century Vietnam exposed the limitations of orthodox Confucianism as a sole ideological framework, prompting intellectuals to seek complementary resources in Buddhism and Daoism. Within this context Ngo Thi Nham reinterpreted key Mahāyāna concepts, such as emptiness (śūnyatā), consciousness (citta) and nirvāṇa, through Confucian categories including li (ritual principle), moral reason and self-cultivation of the heart-mind. This approach culminated in his formulation of the doctrine of the “Buddha in the heart”, which presents liberation as the realization of inner unity and the purification of consciousness. The article demonstrates that this synthesis is not merely eclectic but constitutes a coherent philosophical system aimed at overcoming dualistic thinking, breaking attachments, and restoring harmony between individual, society and cosmos. Thus, Ngo Thi Nham's thought is revealed as a significant stage in the development of Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhism and the national philosophical tradition.